Scientific References

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Bacon, C.E. 1994. An ecotoxicological comparison of organic contaminants in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) among populations in California and Alaska. M.Sc. thesis, University of California Santa Cruz.

Bacon, C.E., W.M. Jarman, J.A. Estes, M. Simon, and R.J. Norstrom. 1999. Comparison of organochlorine contaminants among sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations in California and Alaska. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18:452-458.

Ballachey, B., J. Bodkin, S. Howlin, A. Doroff, A. Rebar. 2003. Correlates to survival of juvenile sea otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska, 1992–1993.   Can.J. Zool. 81: 1494–1510.  Juvenile survival PWS.pdf

Baskaran M., G. Hong, S. Dayton, J. Bodkin, J. Kelley. 2003.   Temporal variations of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides in sea otter skull tissue in the North Pacific Ocean.    Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 64:1–18.  variations through time in radioneucleotides in SO.pdf

Bentall, G.B. 2005. Morphology and behavioral correlates of population status in the southern sea otter, Enhydra Lutris Nereis: A comparative study between central California and San Nicolas Island.  Thesis for Master of Arts in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz.

Berta, A. and G.S. Morgan. 1986. A new sea otter (Carnivora: Mustelidae) from the late Miocene and early Pliocene (Hemphilian) of California. Journal of Paleontology 59:809-819.

Bodkin, J., B. Ballachey, T. Dean, A. Fukuyama, S. Jewett, L. McDonald, D. Monson, C. O’Clair, G. VanBlaricom. 2002.  Sea otter population status and the process of recovery from the 1989 ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 241:237-253. SO recovery Exxon Valdez.pdf

Brody, A.J. et al. 1996. Potential impacts of oil spills on California sea otters: Implications of the Exxon Valdez in Alaska. Marine Mammal Science 12:38-53.

Dean, T., J. Bodkin, A. Fukuyama, S. Jewett, D. Monson, C. O’Clair, G. VanBlaricom. 2002. Food limitation and the recovery of sea otters following the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. 241: 255–270. SO Food limitation Alaska.pdf

Estes, J.A. and J.F. Palmisano. 1974. Sea otters: Their role in structuring nearshore communities. Science 185:1058-60.

Estes, J.A. et al. 1978. Sea otter predation and community organization in the western Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Ecology 59:822-33.

Estes, J.A. and G.R. VanBlaricom. 1985. Sea-otters and shell-fisheries. Marine Mammals and Fisheries. George Allen and Unwin, London, Pub. 187-235.

Estes, J.A. et al. 1986. Activity-time budgets of sea otters in California. J. of Wildlife Management 50(4):626-636.

Estes, J.A. 1990. Growth and equilibrium in sea otter populations. Journal of Animal Ecology 59:385-401.

Estes, J.A., C.E. Bacon, W.M. Jarman, R.J. Norstrom, R.G. Anthony, and A.K. Miles. 1997. Organochlorines in sea otters and bald eagles from the Aleutian archipelago. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:486-490.

Estes, J.A., B.B. Hatfield, K. Ralls, J. Ames.   2003. Causes of mortality in California sea otters during periods of population growth and decline.  Marine Mammal Science 19(1):198-216.

Estes, J., M. Riedman, M. Staedler, M. Tinker, B. Lyon. 2003. Individual variation in prey selection by sea otters: patterns, causes and implications. Journal of Animal Ecology 72:144–155. prey selection in SO.pdf

Garrott, R.A. et. al. 1993. Mortality of Sea Otters in Prince William Sound following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Marine Mammal Science 9:343-359.

Gerard, V.A. 1976. Some aspects of material dynamics and energy flow in a kelp forest in Monterey Bay, CA. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. California, Santa Cruz.

Hines, A.H. and J.S. Pearse 1982. Abalone, shells, and sea otters: dynamics of prey populations in Central California. Ecology 63(5)1547-1560.

Johnson, A.M. 1982. The sea otter, Enhydra lutris. Mammals of the Sea. Food and Agricultural Organization Fisheries Service 4(5):521-525.

Kannan, K. et al. 1998. Butyltin residues in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) found dead along Californiacoastal waters. Environ. Sci. Technol 32:1169-1175.  BTs in SO.pdf

Kannan, K., N. Kajiwara, M. Watanabe, H. Nakata, N. Thomas, M. Stephenson, D. Jessup, S. Tanabe.  2004.  Profiles of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners, organochlorine pesticides, and butyltins in southern sea otters and their prey.  Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 23(1):49-56. seaotterprey.pdf 

Kenyon, K.W. 1969. The Sea Otter in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. North American Fauna 68. 352pp.

Kvitek, R., C. Bretz.  2004. Harmful algal bloom toxins protect bivalve populations from sea otter predation.  Marine Ecology Progress Series 271: 233–243.  (Otters Avoid TAB.pdf).

Laidre, K., R. Jameson, D. DeMaster, 2001. An estimation of carrying capacity for sea otters along the California Coast.  Marine Mammal Science 17(2):294-309.  Laidre et al 2001.pdf 

Larson, S., R. Jameson, J. Bodkin, M. Staedler, P. Bentzen. 2002. Microsatelite DNA and mitochondrial DNA variation in remnant and translocated sea otter (Enhydra lutris) populations. Journal of Mammalogy, 83(3):893-906  Larsen DNA.pdf

Larson, S., R. Jameson, M. Etnier, M. Fleming, P. Bentzen. 2002.   Loss of genetic diversity in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) associated with the fur trade of the 18th and 19th centuries.  Molecular Ecology 11:1899–1903.  SO genetic diversity.pdf

Miller, M, I. Gardner, C. Kreuder, D. Paradies, K. Worcester, D.A. Jessup, E. Dodd, M. Harris, J. Ames, A. Packham, P. Conrad.  2002.  Coastal freshwater runoff is a risk factor for Toxoplasma gondii infection of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis). International Journal for Parasitology 32:997–1006.  Risk paper-Miller.pdf

Miller, M. I. Gardner, A. Packham, J. K. Mazet, K. D. Hanni, D. Jessup, J. Estes, R. Jameson, E. Dodd, Miller, M, M. Grigg, C. Kreuder, E. James, A. Melli, P. Crosbie, D. Jessup, J. Boothroyd, D. Brownstein, P. Conrad.  2004.  An unusual genotype of Toxoplasma gondii is common in California sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) and is a cause of mortality. International Journal for Parasitology 34:275-284.  (New genotype Toxo.pdf)

B. Barr, L. Lowenstine, F. M. Gulland, and P. Conrad.  2002.  Evaluation of an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) for demonstration of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondi in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). J. Parasitol.88(3):594–599. Toxo antibody test.pdf  Nakata, H. et al. 1998. Accumulation pattern of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris) found stranded along coastal California, USA. Environmental Pollution 103:45-53.

Pattison, C., M. Harris, F. Wendell. 1997.  Sea otter, Enhydra lutris, mortalities in California, 1968 through 1993.  Calif.Dept. of Fish and Game.  Marine Resources Division Report: 97-5.  Pattison Harris and Wendell 1997.pdf

Ralls, K., et al. 1983. Genetic Diversity in California Sea Otters: Theoretical Considerations and Management Implications. Biological Conservation 25:209-232.

Ralls, K., T.C. Eagle, D.B. Siniff.   1996.  Movement and spatial use patterns of California sea otters.  Canadian Journal of Zoology 74:1841-1849.

Riedman, M.L. et al. 1994. Breeding patterns and reproductive success of California sea otters. J. of Wildlife Management 58:391-399.

Senkowsky, S. 2004.  The oil and the otter: Sea otters clean up after the Exxon Valdez spill- and get sick doing so.  Scientific American.  May: 30-32. (Scientific American.pdf)

Shimek, S.J. 1977. The underwater foraging habits of the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. Calif. Fish and Game 63(2):120-122.

Shimek, S.J. and A. Monk. 1977. Daily activity of the sea otter off the Monterey Peninsula, California. J. of Wildlife Management 41:277-283.

Siniff, D.B. and K. Ralls. 1991. Reproduction, survival and tag loss in California sea otters. Marine Mammalogy Science 7:211-229.

US Fish and Wildlife Service. 1999. Evaluation of the southern sea otter translocation program (Draft). Circulated to Sea Otter Recovery Team members and stakeholders in February, 1999.

Wilson, D.E. 1991. Geographic Variation in Sea Otters, Enhydra lutris. J. of Mammalogy 72(1):22-36.

VanBlaricom, G.R. and J.A. Estes (editors). 1988. The community ecology of sea otters. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 247 pp.